[i] Council of the European
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assessment of the effects of certain public and private projects on the
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Official Journal L 175 , 05/07/1985
http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/en/lif/dat/1985/en_385L0337.html
[ii] Council of the European Communities (1997). Council Directive 97/11/EEC of 3 March 1997 ammending Directive 85/337/EEC. Official Journal L 073 , 14/03/199
http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/eia/full-legal-text/9711.htm
[iii] www.birdlife.org.uk
[iv] www.sofnet.org
[v] Handbook on the Implementation of EC Environmental Legislation http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/enlarg/handbook/nature.pdf
[vi] Clausager, I. (2000) : Impact assessment studies of offshore wind parks on seabirds with special reference to the Tunø Knob Park, in: Merck & von Nordheim: Technische Eingriffe in Marine Lebensräume, Tagungsband. BFN-Skripten 29. Bundesamt für Naturschutz 2000.
[vii] Söker, H. et al. (2000): North Sea Offshore Wind – A Powerhouse for Europe. Technical Possibilities and Ecological Considerations. A Study for Greenpeace. Hamburg, Germany: Greenpeace, 2000
[viii] EnergieKontor (2000a): Ergebnisse eines fünfjährigen Brut- und Gastvogelmonitorings (1994-1999) im Einzugsbereich des Winds Misselwarden (Landkreis Cuxhaven). [Results from a 5-year monitoring study on breeding and migrating birds in the area of the Misselwarden Wind Farm]
[ix] Border Wind (1996): The effects of wind turbines on the bird population at Blyth Harbour. ETSU report no. W/13/00394/REP
[x] Kahlert et al (2000): Environmental impact assessment of an offshore wind park at Rødsand: Technical report on birds. NERI Report 2000, Commissioned by SEAS Distribution.
[xi] Tulp, I. et al. (1999): Nocturnal flight activity of sea ducks near the windfarm Tunø Knob in the Kattegat. Bureau Waardenburg proj. nr. 98.100, report nr. 99.64, Utrecht
[xii] Noer, H., Christensen, T.K., Clausager, I., & Petersen, I.K. (2000): Effects on birds of an offshore wind park at Horns Rev: Environmental impact assessment. Neri report 2000. Danish Ministry of Environment and Energy & Danish National Environmental Research Institute.
[xiii] Sundberg, J. & Söderman, M (1999): “Windpower and grey seals: An impact assessment of potential effects by sea-based windpower plants on local seal population.” Department of Animal Ecology, Uppsala University
[xiv]
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reports in English and German, full report in Danish and background reports
available from:
http://www.seas.dk/gruppe_artikel.php3?textno=444&groupname=Rødsand&headline=Rødsand
[xv] Larsson, A-K (2000): Försöksanläggning för havsbaserad vindkraft i Nogersund [Offshore Wind Pilot Project in Nogersund]
[xvi] UK Department of Trade and Industry (2000): An assessment of the environmental effects of offshore wind farms. ETSU W/35/00543/REP. Contractor Metoc PLC, Published 2000.
[xvii]
Elsam
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[xviii] Randrup-Thomsen et al.: Risk of Oil Pollution due to Ship Collision with Offshore Wind Farms
[xix] Institut für Tourismus- und Bäderforschung in Nordeuropa (N.I.T.) GmbH (2000): Touristische Effekte von On-und Offshore- Windkraftanlagen in Schleswig-Holstein. Integration der Ergebnisse, Kiel, September 2000. [Effects on tourism from on- and offshore wind turbines in Schleswig-Holstein]
[xx] Hammarlund, K.(1999): Rapporter och notiser 156, Lunds Universitet
[xxi] Hammarlund, K. (1998): Vindkraft i harmoni, ET 19:1998, Energimyndigheten [Wind power in harmony]
[xxii] SEAS (2000b): Havvindmøller VVM. Støjundersøgelse – undervandsstøj. [Offshore wind turbines EIA. Noise investigation – underwater noise]
[xxiii] IALA (International Association of Lighthouse Authorities) (1984): Recommendations for the marking of offshore structures & IALA (2000): Recommendations for the marking of offshore wind farms. www.beta.ialahq.org
[xxiv] The Guardian, May 31, 2001
[xxv] Försvarsmakten (2000): Vindkraftsprojektet (Försvaret och vindkraften): En allmän beskrivning. [Swedish Armed Forces (2000): The wind power project (The Defense and the wind power): A general presentation]
[xxvi] Danish Wind Turbine Manufacturers Association (1993): Holdningsundersøgelse, Ringkjøbing
[xxvii] Erp, F. (1997): Siting processes for wind energy projects in Germany, Eindhoven University of Technology
[xxviii] Simon, A.M. (1996): A summary of research Conducted in to attitudes to wind
[xxix] Wolsink, M. (1990): The siting problem, Windpower as a social dilemma, University of Amsterdam
[xxx] BWEA (1996) – www.britishwindenergy.co.uk
[xxxi] Danmarks Vindmølleforening (2001): Havmølleluag – Forundersølgese vedr. private aktørers involvering i havvindmølleudbygningen. [Danish Association of Wind Turbine Owners (2001): Offshore wind turbine cooperatives – Pre-investigation concerning the involvement of private players in the development of offshore wind energy]
[xxxii] EC (2001) Results of the “ExternE project”: http://externe.jrc.es/
[xxxiii] ECOFYS (2001): Inventory of Policy, Regulations, Administrative Aspects and Current Projects for Offshore Wind Energy in Northern Europe. Novem Report 224.233-0007
[xxxiv] EWEA Press release, 13 March 2001
[xxxv] WIND Directions, July 2001: European Review: The Top 12 Markets.
[xxxvi] STEM (Swedish Energy Agency), 2001: Vindkraften i Sverige [Wind Power in Sweden]
[xxxvii] Watson, S. (1999): EPSRC Offshore Wind Energy Network. Research Requirements Workshop. Final Report.
· Border Wind (1998): Offshore Wind Energy. Building a New Industry for Britain. A Report for Greenpeace by Border Wind.
· Braasch,W. & Freese, T. (2000): Kollisionsrisiko Schiffahrt. [Navigation collision risk] In: Ökologische Auswirkungen durch Offshore Windenergie-Anlagen – Workshop, Ministerium für Umwelt, Natur und Forsten des Landes Schleswig-Holstein: Oral Presentation at Workshop, Kiel, 12.December 2000.
· BWEA (1996): A summary of research conducted into Attitudes to Wind Power from 1990-1996, compiled by Simon Planning and Research, Sept. 1996.
· Clausager, I.B. (1996): Impact of Wind Turbines on Birds: An Overview of European and American Experience, in Bird and Wind Turbines: Can they co-exist. Proceedings of a seminar organised by ETSU for the DTI 26 March 1996.
·
Council of the European Communities
(1985). Council Directive 85/337/EEC of 27 June 1985 on the assessment of the
effects of certain public and private projects on the environment
Official Journal L 175 , 05/07/1985
http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/en/lif/dat/1985/en_385L0337.html
· Council of the European Communities (1997). Council Directive 97/11/EEC of 3 March 1997 ammending Directive 85/337/EEC. Official Journal L 073 , 14/03/199 http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/eia/full-legal-text/9711.htm
· Danish Energy Agency (1999): Wind Power in Denmark. Technology, Policies and Results. September 1999.
· Department of the Marine and Natural Resources, Ireland (2000): Offshore Electricity Generating Stations – Note for Intending Developers Impacts of Offshore Wind Energy Structures on the Marine Environment.
· Dirksen, S. (2000): Considerations on Environmental Issues in the Planning of Offshore Wind Farms in The Netherlands. In: Offshore-Windenergienutzung: Technik, Naturschutz, Planung. Deutsches Windenergie-Institut (Editor):Workshop Proceedings. Wilhelmshaven: DEWI, 2000, p. 40-48
· Dirksen, S. et al. (1998a): Studies on Nocturnal Flight Paths and Altitudes of Waterbirds in Relation to Wind Turbines: A Review of Current Research in The Netherlands., Proceedings of National Avian – Wind Power Planning Meeting III, San Diego, California, May 1998
· Ehrich, S. (2000): Auswirkungen von Offshore-Windkraftanlagen auf Fische. [Impacts from offshore wind energy on fish] In: Fachtagung Offshore-Winds 30.05.2000. NNA Alfred Toepfer Akademie für Naturschutz (Editor):Workshop Proceedings. Schneverdingen: NNA, 2000.
· Elkraft Power Co./SEAS A.m.b.a. (1997): “Offshore Wind Farm at Vindeby, Lolland”, Final Report to the EU-Commission, 2nd Ed.
·
Elsam & Eltra (2000): Høring om
Havvindmølle på Horns Rev [Environmental Impact Assessment Report on offshore
wind power at Horns Rev]. English
summary:
https://www.elsam.com/havmoller/pdf/Resume_eng.pdf
· EnergieKontor (2000a): Ergebnisse eines fünfjährigen Brut- und Gastvogelmonitorings (1994-1999) im Einzugsbereich des Winds Misselwarden (Landkreis Cuxhaven). [Results from a 5-year monitoring study on breeding and migrating birds in the area of the Misselwarden Wind Farm]
· Energistyrelsen (1998): Retningslinier for udarbejdelse af miljøredegørelser for havmølleer [Guidelines for environmental impact assessments for offshore wind farms] Rambøll - Copenhagen (In Danish)
· EU Commission (1997): Wind Energy – The Facts. Volume 4 The Environment,. European Commission Directorate-General for Energy, 1997
· Garte, St. (2000): Möglicher Einfluß der Offshorewindenergienutzung auf die Avifauna. [Possible impacts from offshore wind energy on the avian fauna] In: Offshore-Windenergienutzung: Technik, Naturschutz, Planung. Deutsches Windenergie-Institut (Editor):Workshop Proceedings. Wilhelmshaven: DEWI, 2000, p. 71-76.
· Grontmij groep (1998): Wind mee of wind tegen, A preliminary study to the ecological effects of an offshore wind turbine
· Guillemette M., Larsen J.K., and Clausager I. (1998): Impact Assessment of an offshore wind park on sea ducks. National Environmental Research Institute, Denmark. Technical Report no. 227
· Heuers; J. (2000): Mögliche Auswirkungen von Offshore-Windkraftanlagen auf die Lebens-gemeinschaften am Meeresboden [Possible impacts from offshore wind energy on seabed life]. In: Fachtagung Offshore-Winds 30.05.2000. NNA Alfred Toepfer Akademie für Naturschutz (Editor): Workshop Proceedings. Schneverdingen: NNA, 2000.
· IALA (International Association of Lighthouse Authorities) 1984 Recommendations for the marking of offshore structures (www.beta.ialahq.org).
· IALA (International Association of Lighthouse Authorities) 2000 Recommendations for the marking of offshore wind farms (www.beta.ialahq.org).
· ICAO (International Civil Aviation Organisation), www.icao.int.
· Institut für Tourismus- und Bäderforschung in Nordeuropa (N.I.T.) GmbH (2000): Touristische Effekte von On-und Offshore- Windkraftanlagen in Schleswig-Holstein. Integration der Ergebnisse, Kiel, September 2000. [Effects on tourism from on- and offshore wind turbines in Schleswig-Holstein]
· Lowther, S. (1998): The European Perspective: Some Lessons from Case Studies., Proceedings of National Avian – Wind Power Planning Meeting III, San Diego, California, May 1998
· Lucke, K. (2000): Möglicher Einfluß der Offshorewindenergienutzung auf marine Lebewesen. [Possible impacts from offshore wind energy on marine mammals] In: Offshore-Windenergienutzung: Technik, Naturschutz, Planung. Deutsches Windenergie-Institut (Editor):Workshop Proceedings. Wilhelmshaven: DEWI, 2000, p. 59-70.
· Madsen P. (1996): Tuno Knob Offshore Wind Farm Proceedings EWEC 1996
· Marine Institute (2000): Assessment of Impacts of Offshore Wind Energy Structures on the Marine Environment. Ireland.
· Merck, Th. (2000): Mögliche Konflikte zwischen der Offshorewindenergienutzung und dem Naturschutz. [Possible conflicts between offshore wind energy and nature protection] In: Offshore-Windenergienutzung: Technik, Naturschutz, Planung.Deutsches Windenergie-Institut (Editor):Workshop Proceedings. Wilhelmshaven: DEWI, 2000, p. 49-58.
· Nielsen, B. et al. (1996): ”Wind Turbines & the Landscape", Birk Nielsens Tegnestue – Aarhus
· Pedersen & Poulsen (1991b): On foraging birds, (IBN-DLO, 1992).
· Pedersen M.B. & E. Poulsen. (1991a). En 90m/2MW vindmølles indvirkning på fuglelivet. Fugles reaktioner på opførelsen og idriftsættelsen af Tjæreborgmøllen ved Danske Vadehav [Impacts on birds from a 2MW wind turbine near the Danish Wadden Sea] (Danish, English summary:). Danske Vildtundersøgelser, Hæfte 47, Danmarks Miljøundersøgelser, Afdeling for Flora- og Faunaøkologi, Kalø.
· Percival S. M. (1998) Assessing the Ornithological Effects of Wind Farms: Managing Potential Issues. Proc BWEA
· Percival S. M. (1998) Birds and Wind Turbines: Managing Potential Planning Issues. Proc BWEA 1998
· Percival S. M. (1999) Ornithological Impacts of Offshore Wind Farms. University of Sunderland
· Percival S. M. (2000) Ornithological Impacts of Offshore Wind Farms. Irish Sea Forum Seminar Report No. 23
· Richardson, W.J. et al. (1995): Marine Mammals and Noise. Academic Press, California,
· Schörshusen, H. (2000): Offshoreplanungen des Landes Niedersachsen. [Offshore plans in Niedersachsen] In: Offshore-Windenergienutzung: Technik, Naturschutz, Planung.Deutsches Windenergie-Institut (Editor):Workshop Proceedings. Wilhelmshaven: DEWI, 2000, p. 94-100.
·
SEAS (2000a): Rødsand Offshore Wind
Farm. Environmental Impact Assessment.
Summary reports in English and German, full report in Danish and background
reports available from:
http://www.seas.dk/gruppe_artikel.php3?textno=444&groupname=Rødsand&headline=Rødsand
· Söker, H. et al. (2000): North Sea Offshore Wind – A Powerhouse for Europe. Technical Possibilities and Ecological Considerations. A Study for Greenpeace. Hamburg, Germany: Greenpeace, 2000.
·
Sørensen et. al. (1999): VVM redegørelse for vindmølle på
Middelgrunden (Environmental Impact Assessment Report of the Wind Farm
Middelgrunden), Copenhagen Utility and Middelgrundens Vindmøllelaug -
Copenhagen (In Danish, with English summary:
http://www.middelgrunden.dk/projektinfo/vvm-engl.pdf)
· Still, D., Little, B. & Lawrence, S. (1996): The effects of Wind Turbines on the Bird Population at Blyth Harbour. ETSU Report W/13/00394/REP
· Still, D.: The Birds of Blyth Harbour, in Bird and Wind Turbines: Can they co-exist. Proceedings of a seminar organised by ETSU for the DTI 26 March 1996.
· Sundberg, J. & Söderman, M (1999): “Windpower and grey seals: An impact assessment of potential effects by sea-based windpower plants on local seal population.” Department of Animal Ecology, Uppsala University
· Thelander, C.G. & Rugge, L. (1998): Bird Risk Behaviors and Fatalities at the Altamont Wind Resource Area., Proceedings of National Avian – Wind Power Planning Meeting III, San Diego, California, May 1998
· Tulp, I. et al. (1999): Nocturnal flight activity of sea ducks near the windfarm Tunø Knob in the Kattegat. Bureau Waardenburg proj. nr. 98.100, report nr. 99.64, Utrecht
· UK Department of Trade and Industry (2000): An assessment of the environmental effects of offshore wind farms. ETSU W/35/00543/REP. Contractor Metoc PLC, Published 2000.
· Winkelman, J.E. (1994): Bird/wind turbine investigations in Europe, p 110-140 in: Proceedings on National Avian- Wind Power Planning Meeting, Denver CO, July 1994. http://www.nationalwind.org/pubs/avian94/default.htm
[1] The term “Environmental Impact Assessment” (EIA) covers the procedure that fulfils the assessment requirements of Directive 97/11/EC. In many countries, e.g. in the UK, the environmental information provided by the developer is presented in the form of an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS), which may then be described as the final product of an EIA. In this report only the term EIA will be used.
[2] Personal communication with Alison Stattersfield, BirdLife (June 2001).
[3] The Santoña Marshes case from 1993 (Case C-335/90, Commission v Spain ECR I-4221)
[4] Observations from Utgrunden indicate that Eider ducks have no problems avoiding collisions with the turbines, as the ducks discover the turbines already 3-4 km before they reach the farm, and then subsequently pass the farm at safe distance (1 km).
[5] Tulp et al., 1999 [xi] suggest that the negative effects of large scale offshore wind farms on migrating birds might be reduced, if certain aspects are considered: as birds tend to avoid flying between turbines, the farm should not be long and line-shaped like a long row, lying perpendicular to migration paths. A corridor, with a distance between turbines of several kilometers, may be recommendable in order to minimize the risk of huge wind farms acting as barriers. Finally it is suggested that a small distance between the individual turbines, minimizing the total surface area of the farm, may reduce impacts on migrating birds.
[6] A case from the Oresund Bridge between Denmark and Sweden demonstrates how difficult this issue is to investigate. Despite of several studies being performed prior to the construction, concluding that the risk of bird collision was minimal, some 600 birds were killed at day one in October. Apparently the birds were attracted by the illumination lights on a very foggy day, and collided with the bridge in great numbers, falling to the road below. This situation had not been accounted for in any of the studies performed, and the situation may be expected to occur relatively infrequent. The story generated quite some debate in local media and illustrates the point that the “law of great numbers” apply. Even though the total impact is very small, isolated events as the one described, may cause significant decrease in public acceptance.
[7] On the other hand, when fishery (with trawling equipment) is prohibited in the vicinity of the wind farm, feeding possibilities might improve
[8] The geomagnetic field is the constant magnetic field surrounding the earth
[9] benthic communities: communities living on the sea bed, also known as “Benthos”. (“Benthos” originally means “seabed” in Greek)
[10] Turbidity is the degree of cloudiness or opacity of the seawater due to disturbed sediment.
[11] Biotope is a small area with its own environmental conditions that is home to a particular ecological community of plant and animal life
[12] For instance, the risk analyses regarding the Rødsand and Horns Rev projects were not immediately accepted by the developers, as the figures were based on the assumption that a ship entering the farm area would unavoidably cause a collision. A revised risk analysis has therefore been carried out for the Horns Rev project, and a similar revised analysis is currently being carried out for the Rødsand project.
[13] During the construction of the Middelgrunden Offshore Wind Farm, the submarine cables were damaged three times, however without environmental impacts, as the cables did not contain oil as isolating material.
[14] For Horns Rev, the revised calculations resulted in a ship collision risk of 1 collision every 641 years.
[15] The fact that offshore farms may become tourist attractions is probably one on the reasons why the mayor of Nysted (the municipality closest to the Rødsand Offshore Wind Farm) has insisted on renaming the planned wind farm. As a consequence, the official name of the Rødsand project is now “Nysted Offshore Wind Farm” (in this report, however, the term “Rødsand” will still be used).
[16]The tourists’ answers were based on visualizations where wind farms with different layout were presented from different angles and distances.
[17] CA members: members of the Concerted Action on Offshore Wind Energy in Europe
[18] EIAs from the Dutch Near Shore (NSW) and the Q7 Wind Farm projects also include such risk analyses
[19] GPS: Global Positioning System – a satellite navigation system
[20] The subject of marking lights and visual impacts is illustrated in an example from Denmark, where the Danish Forest and Nature Agency has recommended that the turbines chosen for the Rødsand Offshore Wind Farm should not exceed 100 m. (from sea level to upper blade tip), in order to avoid marking light requirements set by the Danish Civil Aviation Administration. The recommendation of the Agency was purely motivated by visual impact concerns.
[21] In Denmark, the pilot projects regarding five 150 MW offshore wind farms can be regarded as a sequential development of each wind farm – however, due to technical and environmental motives.